{"CACHEDAT":"2026-07-09 12:24:14","SLUG":"information-information-environments-4vXACS9AdV","MARKDOWN":"# Information \n\nInformation refers to any material that conveys something about a topic or issue, including facts, claims, data, descriptions, arguments, interpretations, quotations, statistics, images, and other media.\n\n→ misinformation, disinformation, malinformation\n\n# Information Item {{information items_item_items}}\n\nAn information item is a discrete, self-contained unit of information that\n\n* a creator **produced** \n * by selecting its content: facts, claims, desciriptions, arguments, interpretations, images, or other media\n * by framing the content: presenting, emphasising, and contextualising it\n * by giving it a form or genre: an article, a post, a message a video, a report, a tweet, an interview, or conversation\n\n\n* an editor may have **reviewed** (→ degree of editorial review)\n* has been **circulated**: spoken, posted, sent, or broadcast (→ information circulation)\n* and can be **encountered** within an information environment: a website, a social media platform, a personal conversation, or a publication (→ information visibility)\n\n\n:::info\n#### Framing is unavoidable. {{framing_framed}}\n\nEvery information item presents its content from some perspective — there is no neutral, frame-free version. \n\nThis perspective can range from balanced contextualisation, through an explicit viewpoint, to deliberate manipulation. \n\n:::\n\n## Lifecycle of an Information Item {{lifecycle of information items}}\n\n| | | ### Creation, Circulation & Reception | ### → Source Credibility & Information Reliability | ### → Information Visibility |\n|-----|-----|-----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------|--------------------------|\n| Lifecycle | Actor | | Quality Control: Verification | Gatekeeping: Selection & Exclusion | Curation & Promotion → Prominence, Perceived Importance & Attention |\n| **Creation: Production** | creator (human or AI) | * **is created** **by selecting its content**:
facts, claims, desciriptions, arguments, interpretations, images, or other media**by framing the content**:
presenting, emphasising, and contextualising it **by giving it a form or genre:**
an article, a post, a message, a video, a report, a tweet, an interview, or conversation | * **may or may not be well researched** by checking its sourcesby checking and revising its content (→ fact-checking) | | * **may or may not be targeted at a specific audience** by tailoring content or presentation |\n| PRE-PUBLICATION |\n| → Editorial Review | editor / reviewer | | * **may be verified** by verifying its sourcesby verifying its content (→ fact-checking)by revising content and/or framing | * **may be selected or rejected for publication** | |\n| → Editorial Curation | editor / publisher | | | | * **may be curated** by assigning headline size, emphasis or front-page prominenceby placing and prioritising it within a publication |\n| → Source-Driven Self-Promotion | creator / publisher / influencer / advertiser | | | | * **may be promoted** by targeting specific recipients or accounts (→ direct addressing),by optimising content for ranking systems (→ SEO, SMO, platform-specific optimisation),paying directly for visibility (→ influencer partnerships, paid placements). |\n| **Circulation: Sharing / Publication** | creator / publisher / distributor | * **is shared** by voicing, posting, sending, publishing or broadcasting | | |\n| POST-PUBLICATION (esp. in digital environments) |\n| → Content Moderation | moderator / algorithm | | * may rarely be verified (→ fact-checking) | * **may be admitted, blocked, filtered, or removed** | |\n| Platform-Side Promotion→ Editorial Curation→ Algorithmic Curation
→ Algorithmic Personalisation | editor / algorithm | | | | * **may be curated** by ranking, placing, demoting, labelling, or recommending or personalising### \ud83e\udc47 \ud83e\udc47 \ud83e\udc47 |\n| **Reception:**
**Encountering / Exposure** | recipient / audience | * **is encountered within an information environment** | | | ==EMERGENT EFFECTS==#### ==information amplification==* ==virality==
* ==trending==
* ==spill-over effects==#### ==information narrowing==* ==filter bubble==
* ==echo chamber== |\n| POST-RECEPTION |\n| Engagement | recipient / audience | * **may be viewed, liked, saved, watched, or reacted to** | | |\n| Re-Circulation | recipient / audience as secondary distributor | * **may be forwarded, or reposted** | | |\n| START OF A NEW LIFE-CYCLE |\n| Re-Creation | recipient / audience as new creator / secondary source | * **may be used to create a derived information item** by quoting, commenting on, editing, summarising, remixing, reframing, or embedding it in a new context | * **may or may not be well researched** **by checking its sources****by checking and revising its content** (→ fact-checking) | | |\n\n### ☑ Evaluating an Information Item {{evaluating information items}}\n\n\n:::success\n* **Who** created it, and with what expertise or interests? (→ Creator)\n* **How** is the content selected and framed? (→ Content Selection, → Framing)\n* **How carefully** was it reviewed before publication? (→ Degree of Editorial Review)\n* **How** did it reach me — and how prominently? (→ Circulation, → Visibility)\n* **Where** did I encounter it? (→ Information Environment)\n* **What** sources or references does it draw on? (→ Reference, Evidence)\n\n:::\n\n## Publication Date {{publication dates}}\n\nThe publication date is the date when an information item was originally published, posted, or broadcast. \n\n* It indicates how current the content is and whether it may have been overtaken by newer findings, events, or developments.\n\n## Content\n\nContent refers to what is actually said, shown, claimed, or explained in an information item. \n\n* It includes the facts, claims, data, descriptions, arguments, interpretations, images, or other media through which the information item conveys meaning.\n\n→ fabricated content, manipulated content\n\n## Snippet {{snippets}}\n\nSnippets are compact previews or representations of an information items that unsers encounter before accessing the full source.\n\n* They typically combining a title, a short excerpt or summary, source information such as the domain or URL, and sometimes a thumbnail.\n* They appear in search results, feeds, and link previous on social media or in messaging apps.\n\n## Reference\n\nA reference is an information item or source that is cited, quoted, linked, or referred to within another information item. \n\n* It shows which sources an information item draws on.\n* It makes it possible to trace information back towards its origin. \n* Following references is a key strategy for evaluating reliability.\n\n# Information Environments {{information environment}} & Information Access Systems {{information access system}}\n\nPeople encounter information items in two ways. In an **information environment**, they encounter the item directly, whether physical or digital: a newspaper, a broadcast, a social media post, a website. Through an **information access system**, they reach items indirectly: a search engine or feed returns previews that point to items held elsewhere, and a generative AI system synthesises a response from them.\n\nThe boundary between the two is increasingly fluid. A generative AI system draws on existing items indirectly, yet the response it returns is itself a new information item, encountered directly within the system. A podcast directory points to episodes hosted elsewhere, yet also plays them in the app, and sometimes hosts its own. Because such overlaps are now common, **information environment** is often used as the umbrella term for both.\n\n| Information Environments | Definition | What do I usually encounter there first? |\n|--------------------------|------------|------------------------------------------|\n| **Analogue Information Environments** | non-digital environments in which people encounter information items directly | information items in printed, transmitted, spatial, live, or spoken form |\n| **Digital Information Channels & Platforms** | digital environments in which people encounter information items directly | information items in posted, uploaded, or streamed form |\n\n\n:::warning\nThe boundary between analogue and digital environments is increasingly fluid: live broadcasts may be streamed simultaneously, print publications often appear in digital form, and live events are frequently broadcast or streamed online.\n\n:::\n\n| Information Access Systems | Definition | Where do I start? | What appears there? |\n|----------------------------|------------|-------------------|---------------------|\n| #### Search Systems | Systems that locate and rank information items in response to a user query, returning previews rather than the items themselves. | a search interface | a ranked list of previews:
- titles
- snippets
- URLs |\n| #### Discovery Systems | Systems that surface and curate information items in feeds or directories, returning previews rather than the items themselves. | a feed or browse interface | curated previews:
- headlines
- cards
- recommendations |\n| #### Generative AI Systems | Systems that generate or synthesise responses based on information items rather than directing users to them. | a prompt window | a generated, synthesised response, sometimes with citations |\n\n## ☑ Analogue Information Environments {{analogue information environment}}\n\n| Type | Definition | Typical Examples (encounter on purpose) | Typical Examples (encounter in passing) | How do I encounter information here? |\n|------|------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|--------------------------------------|\n| #### **Print / Publications** | Printed materials — such as newspapers, magazines, books, brochures, flyers, posters, or signage — that are physically distributed, displayed, or made available for reading. | - newspaper subscription
- magazine purchase
- academic textbook
- library book | - campaign flyer in a letterbox
- brochure in a waiting room
- free newspaper on a train
- billboard
- poster at a bus stop | - by purchasing, subscribing, or picking up a copy
- by reading, browsing, or leafing through
- sometimes by noticing printed material placed in a public space |\n| #### **Broadcast & Public Address** | Audio or audiovisual information transmitted to a wide audience through radio, television, screens, or public address systems — either as scheduled programming or as continuous / situational announcements. | - TV news at home
- radio programme
- live sports broadcast | - TV screen in a waiting room
- background radio in a shop
- loudspeaker announcement at a train station
- public address system in an airport | - by tuning in to a channel or station
- by switching between channels
- sometimes by being in a space where broadcast or address content is playing |\n| #### **Installations, Monuments & Exhibits** | Spatial, static, and typically permanent or semi-permanent objects, structures, or displays placed in public or institutional spaces to inform, commemorate, or express. | - museum exhibition
- memorial visit
- gallery installation
- information pavilion | - monument in a public park
- commemorative plaque
- temporary public art installation | - by visiting a space that contains them
- sometimes by passing by or being physically present where they are placed |\n| #### **Live Events & Public Action** | Time-bound, live gatherings or actions involving people — organised to inform, persuade, express, commemorate, or mobilise. | - conference
- lecture
- theatre performance
- campaign event
- planned demonstration | - street protest
- flashmob
- information stand
- protest camp
- vigil
- street performance | - by attending at a specific time and place
- sometimes by being in the vicinity when an event or action takes place |\n| #### **Personal Conversations & Word of Mouth** | Direct, face-to-face exchange of information between individuals — in private, social, or professional settings. | - asking a friend for advice
- family dinner discussion
- consulting a colleague
- parent–teacher conversation | - overhearing a conversation
- casual remark at a social gathering
- word of mouth in a community | - by talking, listening, and asking in direct personal interaction |\n\n## ☑ Digital Information Platforms & Channels {{digital information platform_information platform_information platforms_platform_platforms_channel_digital information channel_digital information channels_information channel_information channels}} \n\n| Type | Definition | Typical Examples | Who can publish information here? | Is what I see here the same for everyone, algorithmically personalised for me, or based on my own configuration? | How do people find and move through information here? |\n|------|------------|------------------|-----------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|\n| ### **Websites / Blogs** | An individual's or organisation's own online space — such as an institutional website, a news site, a company page, or a personal blog — where content is published directly in the owner's name. | - who.int
- [bbc.co.uk](http://bbc.co.uk)
- [greenpeace.org](http://greenpeace.org)- my-travelblog.eu | **Owner-controlled**
- The owner
- Authorised contributors | **Same for everyone**
Content is structured by the site owner through menus, categories, and page layout | - By following menus
- By clicking links
- By browsing sections or categories
- By using internal search, if available
- By moving from page to page |\n| ### **Social Media** | Networked digital spaces where users and organisations post, share, and circulate content. | - Facebook
- Instagram
- TikTok
- X
- LinkedIn
- Threads
- Mastodon | **Open**
- Almost anyone with an account
- Organisations
- Public figures
- Advertisers | **Algorithmically personalised for me**
Feeds, recommendations, trending content, and promoted posts are shaped by my behaviour and engagement | - By scrolling through feeds
- By following accounts
- By opening comments, replies, and threads
- By clicking shares, reposts, and recommendations
- By searching hashtags, keywords, or account names |\n| ### **Video / Audio Platforms** | Digital spaces where many different users or organisations upload and share video or audio content. | - YouTube
- Vimeo
- SoundCloud | **Open**
- Almost anyone with an account or channel
- Organisations
- Media producers
- Podcasters | **Algorithmically personalised for me**
Recommendations, autoplay queues, and suggested items are shaped by my viewing / listening history | - By searching for specific items
- By moving through playlists or queues
- By following recommendations
- By opening channels, episodes, or series
- By using subscriptions |\n| **Streaming / On-demand Services** | Curated digital services that offer access to a catalogue of on-demand media. | - Netflix
- Disney+
- BBC iPlayer
- Arte
- RaiPlay | **Curated**
- The provider
- Authorised producers
- Licensed content partners | **Algorithmically personalised for me**
Recommendations, featured selections, and catalogue presentation are shaped by my watch history | - By browsing the catalogue
- By selecting from featured content
- By continuing series or programmes
- By following recommendation rows
- By searching titles, genres, or categories |\n| **Communication / Messaging Apps** | Private or semi-private spaces — such as messaging or email apps — for direct exchange between individuals or groups. | - WhatsApp
- Signal
- Messenger
- Gmail
- Outlook | **Member-controlled**
- Participants in the conversation
- Members of the group
- Mailing-list senders | **Based on my own configuration**
What I see depends on my contacts, conversations, groups, and how I organise them | - By opening chats or threads
- By reading chronological message streams
- By following forwards, links, and attachments
- By searching chat history, senders, or keywords |\n| **Discussion Forums / Community Spaces** | Interactive spaces — such as forums, discussion boards, comment sections, or community groups — where users discuss, comment, ask questions, and respond to one another. | - Reddit
- Discord
- Stack Overflow
- Quora | **Semi-open**
- Members
- Registered users
- Moderators | **Same for everyone / Based on my own Configuration**
What I see depends first on which communities, servers, forums, or threads I join or enter; within them, visibility may then be shaped by upvotes, moderation, and sorting. | - By browsing threads
- By opening replies and subthreads
- By following notifications
- By moving across categories or communities
- By searching topics, tags, or thread titles |\n\n\n:::info\nSome platforms fall into more than one type — for example, Telegram (messaging + public channels), Discord (messaging + community), Reddit (forum + social media), Spotify (streaming + podcast discovery).\n\n:::\n\n### ☑ Access Barriers {{access barrier}}\n\n| Barrier | Examples | People typically excluded |\n|---------|----------|---------------------------|\n| #### **Financial barriers {{financial barrier}}** | - Paywalls
- Subscription fees
- Premium memberships | - Low-income households
- Students without institutional access
- Users in regions with weaker currencies |\n| #### **Language barriers {{language barrier}}** | - Foreign language
- Academic or technical vocabulary
- Complex sentence structures | - Non-native speakers
- Users with lower formal education
- Younger users |\n| #### **Disability-related barriers {{disability-related barrier}}** | - No screen reader support
- No captions or transcripts
- Low contrast or small text | - Users with visual impairments
- Users with hearing impairments
- Users with cognitive impairments |\n| #### **Technical barriers {{technical barrier}}** | - High bandwidth requirements
- Modern devices needed
- Specific software or apps | - Users with older devices
- Rural users with limited internet
- Low-income households |\n| #### **Geographic barriers {{geographic barrier}}** | - Region locks
- Local platform restrictions | - Users in restricted regions
- Travellers |\n| #### **Political / regulatory barriers {{political barrier_regulatory barrier_political barriers}}** | - Government censorship
- Government bans on platforms or apps
- Sanctions or embargoes | - Users in countries with restrictive media policies
- Activists, journalists, dissidents |\n| #### **Account & identification barriers {{account barriers_account barrier_identification barrier}}** | - Mandatory account creation
- Identity verification
- Age verification | - Users without an email or phone
- Users without official ID
- Minors without parental permission |\n| #### **Privacy-related barriers {{privacy-related barrier}}** | - Mandatory data sharing
- Tracking requirements
- Required app permissions | - Privacy-sensitive users- Users avoiding government surveillance- Users wary of corporate data collection |\n\n\n:::warning\nThese barriers are not mutually exclusive, they often overlap or reinforce each other — for example, the Great Firewall of China blocks specific platforms only within that country, acting as both a geographic and a political/regulatory barrier.\n\n:::\n\n## ☑ Search Systems {{search system}}\n\ninformation items accessed indirectly through search \\n→ users enter a query in a search interface and receive a ranked list of previews pointing to the underlying items\n\n| Type | Definition | Typical Examples | What is my starting point and how do I look for information here? | What determines which information items are displayed and in what order? | What do I get back? | How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all? |\n|------|------------|------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| ### **Search Engines {{search engine}}** | Systems that index and rank information items across the web based on user queries. | - Google
- Bing
- DuckDuckGo
- Ecosia | - search bar
- by entering keywords or questions | - my query
- ranking algorithms
- relevance
- recency
- search engine optimisation
- sometimes personalisation based on location or search history | **Previews of existing information items:**
- ranked list of results with snippets, titles, and URLs
- AI-generated summaries | - by clicking a result link, which takes me directly to the information item in its original space |\n| ### **Scholarly Databases {{scholarly database}}** | Systems that make scholarly information items searchable and accessible through search, filtering, and structured metadata. | - PubMed
- JSTOR
- Google Scholar
- ERIC | - advanced search form with filters
- by entering keywords
- by filtering metadata
- by combining search fields | - my query
- metadata matching
- citation count
- relevance ranking
- database-specific indexing | **Previews of existing information items:**
- bibliographic records
- abstracts
- sometimes links to or direct access to full texts | - by clicking through to the full text
- sometimes directly within the same system
- sometimes via external publisher
- sometimes behind a paywall or institutional login |\n\n## ☑ Discovery Systems {{discovery system}}\n\ninformation items accessed indirectly through curated feeds or directories → users browse a feed or directory and see previews pointing to the underlying items\n\n| Type | Definition | Typical Examples | What is my starting point and how do I look for information here? | What determines which information items are displayed and in what order? | What do I get back? | How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all? |\n|------|------------|------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| #### **Feeds {{feed}}** | Systems that present a continuous, personalised stream of recommended information items based on topics, interests, or user behaviour. | - Google News
- Google Discover
- Apple News
- Flipboard
- Upday
- Microsoft Start | - personalised feed or browse interface
- by scrolling through the feed
- sometimes by selecting topics or categories
- sometimes by entering keywords | - editorial curation
- algorithmic curation (esp. trending detection)
- algorithmic personalisation (esp. personalised ranking, recommendations) | **Previews of existing information items:**
- headlines
- cards
- snippets
- thumbnails
- recommendations from various sources | - by tapping or clicking a headline, card, or preview
- this takes me to the information item in its original space |\n| #### **Directories {{directory}}** | Systems that organise information items into browsable catalogues with categories, charts, and recommendations. | - Apple Podcasts
- Spotify Podcasts
- Pocket Casts | - browse interface with categories and charts
- by browsing categories or top lists
- by following recommendations
- sometimes by entering keywords | - editorial curation
- algorithmic curation (esp. trending detection - \"popularity charts\")
- algorithmic personalisation (sometimes recommendations) | **Previews of existing information items:**
- listings with titles, descriptions, and episode lists
- thumbnails
- ratings
- sometimes recommendations | - by tapping or clicking a listing
- sometimes I can play the item directly within the app
- the transition to the underlying host is not always visible |\n\n*Some platforms function as both Discovery Systems and Digital Channels — Apple Podcasts and Spotify Podcasts, for example, surface podcasts hosted elsewhere but also play the content directly within the app.*\n\n## ☑ Generative AI Systems {{generative AI system_AI systems_AI system}}\n\ninformation items accessed indirectly through generative synthesis \\n→ users enter a prompt and receive a synthesised response, sometimes with references to underlying items\n\n| Type | Definition | Typical Examples | What is my starting point and how do I look for information here? | What determines which information items are displayed and in what order? | What do I get back? | How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all? |\n|------|------------|------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------|\n| ### **Training-data based AI** | Systems that generate responses based on patterns learned during training, without real-time retrieval from external sources. | - ChatGPT
- Claude
- Gemini | - prompt window or chat interface
- by entering prompts, questions, or follow-up instructions | - my prompt
- the system's underlying model
- training data with a knowledge cutoff | **Generated content:**
- synthesised response
- based on patterns from training data
- rarely with citations to specific sources | - the generated response is typically the endpoint
- underlying sources are usually not retrievable |\n| ### **RAG\\* AI** | Systems that synthesise responses by retrieving relevant content from external sources at query time — from the open web or from a user-provided corpus. | - Perplexity
- NotebookLM
- Copilot
- Bing Chat | - prompt window or search interface
- by entering prompts or questions
- sometimes after uploading user-provided sources | - my prompt
- the retrieval mechanism (web search or document corpus)
- the system's underlying model | **Generated content:**
- synthesised response based on retrieved sources
- usually with citations to the underlying items | - through cited sources or links, when provided
- to verify the synthesis against the original items |\n\n*Training-data based AI Assistants increasingly include retrieval modes (e.g., ChatGPT with web search, Claude with search). When activated, they function as RAG systems for that query — the boundary between the two types is mode-dependent rather than product-dependent.*\n\n\\*RAG (Retrieval-Augmented Generation): a method that combines AI generation with retrieval from a defined corpus of sources — the system synthesises responses based on the retrieved content rather than only on its training data.\n\n====","RENDERMODE":"htmlexport","HTML":"

Information

Information refers to any material that conveys something about a topic or issue, including facts, claims, data, descriptions, arguments, interpretations, quotations, statistics, images, and other media.

→ misinformation, disinformation, malinformation

Information Item

An information item is a discrete, self-contained unit of information that

Framing is unavoidable.

Every information item presents its content from some perspective — there is no neutral, frame-free version.

This perspective can range from balanced contextualisation, through an explicit viewpoint, to deliberate manipulation.

Lifecycle of an Information Item

Creation, Circulation & Reception

→ Source Credibility & Information Reliability

→ Information Visibility

Lifecycle

Actor

Quality Control: Verification

Gatekeeping: Selection & Exclusion

Curation & Promotion → Prominence, Perceived Importance & Attention

Creation: Production

creator (human or AI)

  • is created

    • by selecting its content:
      facts, claims, desciriptions, arguments, interpretations, images, or other media

    • by framing the content:
      presenting, emphasising, and contextualising it

    • by giving it a form or genre:
      an article, a post, a message, a video, a report, a tweet, an interview, or conversation

  • may or may not be well researched

    • by checking its sources

    • by checking and revising its content (→ fact-checking)

  • may or may not be targeted at a specific audience

    • by tailoring content or presentation

PRE-PUBLICATION

→ Editorial Review

editor / reviewer

  • may be verified

    • by verifying its sources

    • by verifying its content (→ fact-checking)

    • by revising content and/or framing

  • may be selected or rejected for publication

→ Editorial Curation

editor / publisher

  • may be curated

    • by assigning headline size, emphasis or front-page prominence

    • by placing and prioritising it within a publication

→ Source-Driven Self-Promotion

creator / publisher / influencer / advertiser

  • may be promoted

    • by targeting specific recipients or accounts (→ direct addressing),

    • by optimising content for ranking systems (→ SEO, SMO, platform-specific optimisation),

    • paying directly for visibility (→ influencer partnerships, paid placements).

Circulation: Sharing / Publication

creator / publisher / distributor

  • is shared

    • by voicing, posting, sending, publishing or broadcasting

POST-PUBLICATION (esp. in digital environments)

→ Content Moderation

moderator / algorithm

  • may rarely be verified (→ fact-checking)

  • may be admitted, blocked, filtered, or removed

Platform-Side Promotion

→ Editorial Curation

→ Algorithmic Curation
→ Algorithmic Personalisation

editor / algorithm

  • may be curated

    • by ranking, placing, demoting, labelling, or recommending or personalising

\ud83e\udc47 \ud83e\udc47 \ud83e\udc47

Reception:
Encountering / Exposure

recipient / audience

  • is encountered within an information environment

EMERGENT EFFECTS

information amplification

  • virality

  • trending

  • spill-over effects

information narrowing

  • filter bubble

  • echo chamber

POST-RECEPTION

Engagement

recipient / audience

  • may be viewed, liked, saved, watched, or reacted to

Re-Circulation

recipient / audience as secondary distributor

  • may be forwarded, or reposted

START OF A NEW LIFE-CYCLE

Re-Creation

recipient / audience as new creator / secondary source

  • may be used to create a derived information item

    • by quoting, commenting on, editing, summarising, remixing, reframing, or embedding it in a new context

  • may or may not be well researched

      • by checking its sources

      • by checking and revising its content (→ fact-checking)

☑ Evaluating an Information Item

  • Who created it, and with what expertise or interests? (→ Creator)

  • How is the content selected and framed? (→ Content Selection, → Framing)

  • How carefully was it reviewed before publication? (→ Degree of Editorial Review)

  • How did it reach me — and how prominently? (→ Circulation, → Visibility)

  • Where did I encounter it? (→ Information Environment)

  • What sources or references does it draw on? (→ Reference, Evidence)

Publication Date

The publication date is the date when an information item was originally published, posted, or broadcast.

Content

Content refers to what is actually said, shown, claimed, or explained in an information item.

→ fabricated content, manipulated content

Snippet

Snippets are compact previews or representations of an information items that unsers encounter before accessing the full source.

Reference

A reference is an information item or source that is cited, quoted, linked, or referred to within another information item.

Information Environments & Information Access Systems

People encounter information items in two ways. In an information environment, they encounter the item directly, whether physical or digital: a newspaper, a broadcast, a social media post, a website. Through an information access system, they reach items indirectly: a search engine or feed returns previews that point to items held elsewhere, and a generative AI system synthesises a response from them.

The boundary between the two is increasingly fluid. A generative AI system draws on existing items indirectly, yet the response it returns is itself a new information item, encountered directly within the system. A podcast directory points to episodes hosted elsewhere, yet also plays them in the app, and sometimes hosts its own. Because such overlaps are now common, information environment is often used as the umbrella term for both.

Information Environments

Definition

What do I usually encounter there first?

Analogue Information Environments

non-digital environments in which people encounter information items directly

information items in printed, transmitted, spatial, live, or spoken form

Digital Information Channels & Platforms

digital environments in which people encounter information items directly

information items in posted, uploaded, or streamed form

The boundary between analogue and digital environments is increasingly fluid: live broadcasts may be streamed simultaneously, print publications often appear in digital form, and live events are frequently broadcast or streamed online.

Information Access Systems

Definition

Where do I start?

What appears there?

Search Systems

Systems that locate and rank information items in response to a user query, returning previews rather than the items themselves.

a search interface

a ranked list of previews:
- titles
- snippets
- URLs

Discovery Systems

Systems that surface and curate information items in feeds or directories, returning previews rather than the items themselves.

a feed or browse interface

curated previews:
- headlines
- cards
- recommendations

Generative AI Systems

Systems that generate or synthesise responses based on information items rather than directing users to them.

a prompt window

a generated, synthesised response, sometimes with citations

☑ Analogue Information Environments

Type

Definition

Typical Examples (encounter on purpose)

Typical Examples (encounter in passing)

How do I encounter information here?

Print / Publications

Printed materials — such as newspapers, magazines, books, brochures, flyers, posters, or signage — that are physically distributed, displayed, or made available for reading.

- newspaper subscription
- magazine purchase
- academic textbook
- library book

- campaign flyer in a letterbox
- brochure in a waiting room
- free newspaper on a train
- billboard
- poster at a bus stop

- by purchasing, subscribing, or picking up a copy
- by reading, browsing, or leafing through
- sometimes by noticing printed material placed in a public space

Broadcast & Public Address

Audio or audiovisual information transmitted to a wide audience through radio, television, screens, or public address systems — either as scheduled programming or as continuous / situational announcements.

- TV news at home
- radio programme
- live sports broadcast

- TV screen in a waiting room
- background radio in a shop
- loudspeaker announcement at a train station
- public address system in an airport

- by tuning in to a channel or station
- by switching between channels
- sometimes by being in a space where broadcast or address content is playing

Installations, Monuments & Exhibits

Spatial, static, and typically permanent or semi-permanent objects, structures, or displays placed in public or institutional spaces to inform, commemorate, or express.

- museum exhibition
- memorial visit
- gallery installation
- information pavilion

- monument in a public park
- commemorative plaque
- temporary public art installation

- by visiting a space that contains them
- sometimes by passing by or being physically present where they are placed

Live Events & Public Action

Time-bound, live gatherings or actions involving people — organised to inform, persuade, express, commemorate, or mobilise.

- conference
- lecture
- theatre performance
- campaign event
- planned demonstration

- street protest
- flashmob
- information stand
- protest camp
- vigil
- street performance

- by attending at a specific time and place
- sometimes by being in the vicinity when an event or action takes place

Personal Conversations & Word of Mouth

Direct, face-to-face exchange of information between individuals — in private, social, or professional settings.

- asking a friend for advice
- family dinner discussion
- consulting a colleague
- parent–teacher conversation

- overhearing a conversation
- casual remark at a social gathering
- word of mouth in a community

- by talking, listening, and asking in direct personal interaction

☑ Digital Information Platforms & Channels

Type

Definition

Typical Examples

Who can publish information here?

Is what I see here the same for everyone, algorithmically personalised for me, or based on my own configuration?

How do people find and move through information here?

Websites / Blogs

An individual's or organisation's own online space — such as an institutional website, a news site, a company page, or a personal blog — where content is published directly in the owner's name.

- who.int
- bbc.co.uk
- greenpeace.org

- my-travelblog.eu

Owner-controlled
- The owner
- Authorised contributors

Same for everyone
Content is structured by the site owner through menus, categories, and page layout

- By following menus
- By clicking links
- By browsing sections or categories
- By using internal search, if available
- By moving from page to page

Social Media

Networked digital spaces where users and organisations post, share, and circulate content.

- Facebook
- Instagram
- TikTok
- X
- LinkedIn
- Threads
- Mastodon

Open
- Almost anyone with an account
- Organisations
- Public figures
- Advertisers

Algorithmically personalised for me
Feeds, recommendations, trending content, and promoted posts are shaped by my behaviour and engagement

- By scrolling through feeds
- By following accounts
- By opening comments, replies, and threads
- By clicking shares, reposts, and recommendations
- By searching hashtags, keywords, or account names

Video / Audio Platforms

Digital spaces where many different users or organisations upload and share video or audio content.

- YouTube
- Vimeo
- SoundCloud

Open
- Almost anyone with an account or channel
- Organisations
- Media producers
- Podcasters

Algorithmically personalised for me
Recommendations, autoplay queues, and suggested items are shaped by my viewing / listening history

- By searching for specific items
- By moving through playlists or queues
- By following recommendations
- By opening channels, episodes, or series
- By using subscriptions

Streaming / On-demand Services

Curated digital services that offer access to a catalogue of on-demand media.

- Netflix
- Disney+
- BBC iPlayer
- Arte
- RaiPlay

Curated
- The provider
- Authorised producers
- Licensed content partners

Algorithmically personalised for me
Recommendations, featured selections, and catalogue presentation are shaped by my watch history

- By browsing the catalogue
- By selecting from featured content
- By continuing series or programmes
- By following recommendation rows
- By searching titles, genres, or categories

Communication / Messaging Apps

Private or semi-private spaces — such as messaging or email apps — for direct exchange between individuals or groups.

- WhatsApp
- Signal
- Messenger
- Gmail
- Outlook

Member-controlled
- Participants in the conversation
- Members of the group
- Mailing-list senders

Based on my own configuration
What I see depends on my contacts, conversations, groups, and how I organise them

- By opening chats or threads
- By reading chronological message streams
- By following forwards, links, and attachments
- By searching chat history, senders, or keywords

Discussion Forums / Community Spaces

Interactive spaces — such as forums, discussion boards, comment sections, or community groups — where users discuss, comment, ask questions, and respond to one another.

- Reddit
- Discord
- Stack Overflow
- Quora

Semi-open
- Members
- Registered users
- Moderators

Same for everyone / Based on my own Configuration
What I see depends first on which communities, servers, forums, or threads I join or enter; within them, visibility may then be shaped by upvotes, moderation, and sorting.

- By browsing threads
- By opening replies and subthreads
- By following notifications
- By moving across categories or communities
- By searching topics, tags, or thread titles

Some platforms fall into more than one type — for example, Telegram (messaging + public channels), Discord (messaging + community), Reddit (forum + social media), Spotify (streaming + podcast discovery).

☑ Access Barriers

Barrier

Examples

People typically excluded

Financial barriers

- Paywalls
- Subscription fees
- Premium memberships

- Low-income households
- Students without institutional access
- Users in regions with weaker currencies

Language barriers

- Foreign language
- Academic or technical vocabulary
- Complex sentence structures

- Non-native speakers
- Users with lower formal education
- Younger users

Disability-related barriers

- No screen reader support
- No captions or transcripts
- Low contrast or small text

- Users with visual impairments
- Users with hearing impairments
- Users with cognitive impairments

Technical barriers

- High bandwidth requirements
- Modern devices needed
- Specific software or apps

- Users with older devices
- Rural users with limited internet
- Low-income households

Geographic barriers

- Region locks
- Local platform restrictions

- Users in restricted regions
- Travellers

Political / regulatory barriers

- Government censorship
- Government bans on platforms or apps
- Sanctions or embargoes

- Users in countries with restrictive media policies
- Activists, journalists, dissidents

Account & identification barriers

- Mandatory account creation
- Identity verification
- Age verification

- Users without an email or phone
- Users without official ID
- Minors without parental permission

Privacy-related barriers

- Mandatory data sharing
- Tracking requirements
- Required app permissions

- Privacy-sensitive users

- Users avoiding government surveillance

- Users wary of corporate data collection

These barriers are not mutually exclusive, they often overlap or reinforce each other — for example, the Great Firewall of China blocks specific platforms only within that country, acting as both a geographic and a political/regulatory barrier.

☑ Search Systems

information items accessed indirectly through search
→ users enter a query in a search interface and receive a ranked list of previews pointing to the underlying items

Type

Definition

Typical Examples

What is my starting point and how do I look for information here?

What determines which information items are displayed and in what order?

What do I get back?

How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all?

Search Engines

Systems that index and rank information items across the web based on user queries.

- Google
- Bing
- DuckDuckGo
- Ecosia

- search bar
- by entering keywords or questions

- my query
- ranking algorithms
- relevance
- recency
- search engine optimisation
- sometimes personalisation based on location or search history

Previews of existing information items:
- ranked list of results with snippets, titles, and URLs
- AI-generated summaries

- by clicking a result link, which takes me directly to the information item in its original space

Scholarly Databases

Systems that make scholarly information items searchable and accessible through search, filtering, and structured metadata.

- PubMed
- JSTOR
- Google Scholar
- ERIC

- advanced search form with filters
- by entering keywords
- by filtering metadata
- by combining search fields

- my query
- metadata matching
- citation count
- relevance ranking
- database-specific indexing

Previews of existing information items:
- bibliographic records
- abstracts
- sometimes links to or direct access to full texts

- by clicking through to the full text
- sometimes directly within the same system
- sometimes via external publisher
- sometimes behind a paywall or institutional login

☑ Discovery Systems

information items accessed indirectly through curated feeds or directories → users browse a feed or directory and see previews pointing to the underlying items

Type

Definition

Typical Examples

What is my starting point and how do I look for information here?

What determines which information items are displayed and in what order?

What do I get back?

How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all?

Feeds

Systems that present a continuous, personalised stream of recommended information items based on topics, interests, or user behaviour.

- Google News
- Google Discover
- Apple News
- Flipboard
- Upday
- Microsoft Start

- personalised feed or browse interface
- by scrolling through the feed
- sometimes by selecting topics or categories
- sometimes by entering keywords

- editorial curation
- algorithmic curation (esp. trending detection)
- algorithmic personalisation (esp. personalised ranking, recommendations)

Previews of existing information items:
- headlines
- cards
- snippets
- thumbnails
- recommendations from various sources

- by tapping or clicking a headline, card, or preview
- this takes me to the information item in its original space

Directories

Systems that organise information items into browsable catalogues with categories, charts, and recommendations.

- Apple Podcasts
- Spotify Podcasts
- Pocket Casts

- browse interface with categories and charts
- by browsing categories or top lists
- by following recommendations
- sometimes by entering keywords

- editorial curation
- algorithmic curation (esp. trending detection - “popularity charts”)
- algorithmic personalisation (sometimes recommendations)

Previews of existing information items:
- listings with titles, descriptions, and episode lists
- thumbnails
- ratings
- sometimes recommendations

- by tapping or clicking a listing
- sometimes I can play the item directly within the app
- the transition to the underlying host is not always visible

Some platforms function as both Discovery Systems and Digital Channels — Apple Podcasts and Spotify Podcasts, for example, surface podcasts hosted elsewhere but also play the content directly within the app.

☑ Generative AI Systems

information items accessed indirectly through generative synthesis
→ users enter a prompt and receive a synthesised response, sometimes with references to underlying items

Type

Definition

Typical Examples

What is my starting point and how do I look for information here?

What determines which information items are displayed and in what order?

What do I get back?

How do I move from here to the underlying information item(s), if at all?

Training-data based AI

Systems that generate responses based on patterns learned during training, without real-time retrieval from external sources.

- ChatGPT
- Claude
- Gemini

- prompt window or chat interface
- by entering prompts, questions, or follow-up instructions

- my prompt
- the system's underlying model
- training data with a knowledge cutoff

Generated content:
- synthesised response
- based on patterns from training data
- rarely with citations to specific sources

- the generated response is typically the endpoint
- underlying sources are usually not retrievable

RAG* AI

Systems that synthesise responses by retrieving relevant content from external sources at query time — from the open web or from a user-provided corpus.

- Perplexity
- NotebookLM
- Copilot
- Bing Chat

- prompt window or search interface
- by entering prompts or questions
- sometimes after uploading user-provided sources

- my prompt
- the retrieval mechanism (web search or document corpus)
- the system's underlying model

Generated content:
- synthesised response based on retrieved sources
- usually with citations to the underlying items

- through cited sources or links, when provided
- to verify the synthesis against the original items

Training-data based AI Assistants increasingly include retrieval modes (e.g., ChatGPT with web search, Claude with search). When activated, they function as RAG systems for that query — the boundary between the two types is mode-dependent rather than product-dependent.

*RAG (Retrieval-Augmented Generation): a method that combines AI generation with retrieval from a defined corpus of sources — the system synthesises responses based on the retrieved content rather than only on its training data.

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